February 15, 2010

 DEVELOPMENT A WESTERN CULTURE

To explain whether development is westernised or not, we need to analyse the assumptions underlying development, practices as well as processes taken in consideration as the means to the end. It is also significant to critically look at the impact it has had on non-western societies that is contrary to the indigenous cultural values

 Development is linked to agreed concepts such as wellbeing, good life, liberalisation, evolution, growth etc. On the other hand it is not natural but inevitable consequence of human activities. Neither is it static nor definite but rather continuously changing process that changes with the needs of man over time.

 It is more associated with change for the better in ways of life and advancement. It is a much localised product of specific historical transformations in both social relations and human interaction with nature. It is often seen as a western concept based on western experiences, theories/theorists, imposed on others as the only mode of change for better wellbeing.

Substantive rationalisation is that in all culture, securing livelihood is the main objective however, the way of achieving it is dictated by cultural values, social and traditional values without any economic laws. the bases of rationalising livelihood is based on more than economic laws, to some it may be for social status, power just as modernisation theories and development ideologies were western

 If development is about human wellbeing/good life, then it can not be defined exclusively of the values of life contributing to the human wellbeing, while Culture is about the way of defining wellbeing including thinking. If that is true, then whatever is theorised is nothing but a reflection of our cultures/way of life. The western cultures/way of living becomes superior and central for development. And for that reason it has been exported else where in the name of development and because culture is evolutionary overtime, so is development which is just western culture

 To the poststructuralists, development is just a cultural discourse that shapes and defined society through representative hegemonic western views that systematically shape and construct identities of the third world people without allowing them to think for alternatives of organising principles for attaining wellbeing (Vijavendra R, et al2004).

 Rostows’ five stages of development is an example of imposing western mode of life as universal and good for every one. However, it becomes western when we ask, who is defining wellbeing? who is measuring development, whose perspective is used, whose experiences, whose theories, what are the assumptions, what were the objectives, etc are some of the questions that prompts one to conclude it is all western culture.

 It can be argued that the pervasiveness of development discourse and ideology denaturalizes the historical and political realities of the development enterprise. Because it had been assumed that development has to take a particular course, the same course taken by the western world makes the indigenous experiences and values sidelined.

What does it mean to say development is westernised? Westernisation can be understood as the reconstruction or reshaping the rest of the world basing on western norms, culture and institutions (Ozay, 1999). The west represents the development model to be followed by third world societies. The central concept of westernisation is founded on the idea of progressive economic development according to market forces of demand and supply. While politically; westernisation rested on democratic forces of one man one vote. Westernisation seeks to universalise markets by reducing what is worthwhile to market determined value (Ozay, 1999)

 Western capitalism has been legitimised as economic growth using international trade as a means of expanding and accumulating more capital. Capitalism is now promoted at global level by converting labour and productive resources into capital in form of technology, ecological assets, human capital, natural resources, converting them to private property motivated by individualism which is western ideology.

 Western theorists also tended to ignore non-western cultures concerning self determination, interpersonal relations, creating superiority of individualism through education. John Stuart Mills’ contention that societies pass through specific stages from savagery to barbarism and finally to development shows the western as the model others have to follow to development.

 The concept of westernisation became more pronounced after the Second World War when the economic order growing out of the European experiences became dominant spreading far to less developed countries in form of colonialism. Colonialism in itself is culture of dominance by the west naming others as underdeveloped, backward, uncultured or barbaric countries who needed redemption from poverty and barbarism. But to meet their objectives of `’modernising’ the ‘non-modern’ could not be done in isolation of importing and legalising their way of modern life which in essence is cultural values.

 Western capitalism goes back to Adam smith (1776) theorising of laissez faire laws. It encompasses both economic and political development (Ozay, 1999). After the WW11, local cultures were dismissed as barriers to development or obstacles to economic development to take place which required to be replaced by superior western culture. Creating binary concepts like traditional verses modern, backward and developed, top down development

 In reference to Karl Marx (1818-1883) assumptions  of universality of all people as being homo-economicus and commoditifying and valuing labour in terms of time spent, while alienating it from the products clearly is western value contrary to labour as a social process prior to westernisation. The alienation of labour was and still is a western value and cultural practices.

 In what ways have these western customs and values have been imposed on others

The poststructuralists or postmodernists and anthropologists argue that through development theorises and strategies that led to dependence and underdevelopment was purely western neo-colonial project of capitalistic expansion that was used to structure inequality to reproduce and maintain the domination of the poorer countries(Vijavendra R, et al2004)

Western norms and cultures can still be widely witnessed in the current economic global development reflecting social Darwin’s theory of evolution of natural selection in survival for the fittest culture. By Darwin asserting that societies develop operates by natural law was intended to rationalise and legitimate the unequal divisions within and between societies by making others dominate the less powerful countries and colonisation of list developed countries.

 In reference to the mode of measurement of development in terms of GDP and income per capital are totally based on western values of what is anticipated to be consumed and has a market value. These western concepts are widely applied in non western countries.

 With specific reference to modernisation theory, it was perceived as western process of development that non western societies could follow as along as they agreed to abandon their traditional cultures and adapt the technologically and western morally superior ways and values(Inglehart et al, 2000)

 Politically, theorists like Aristotle’s ideas of development as good life, in reference to state administration; the ideas of Montesquieu (1689 -1755) of power separation and good governance and rule of law currently being used in third world countries was based on  western models emphasising democracy that promoted the rights of the majority leaving the minority. Political liberalism of equality were purely western values that equality, fraternity and

 Socially:

Socially and culturally we learn that economic thinking and market economic laws are influenced by cultural values. The fact that economic systems were created by man, they can not be free from cultural values. For instance individualism and competition are perceived as western values which are contrary to social communal values especially in Africa. This practice has left most developing countries limited to the production of limited commodities like coffee in order to survive in the diaspora.

 Economically:

Adam Smith (1723-1790) as one of the founders of economics laid down the concepts of free trade and free markets, it had been assumed that people every where had  the same way of decision making and had the same thinking of economising as the western world without acknowledging what people in different societies with different cultures would value. What was considered as economic value did not have the same value to another society. The maximisation and economising principle were purely western and not in the nature of man as theorised and if so , it only applied to them. On realising the significance of culture in influencing economic development, the non western culture had to be suspended.

 In conclusion, if development is about man’s wellbeing and evolution in nature, we can not solely argue that development is a western concept but my argument is that the means to the end is what we can categorise as western. There fore it should be looked at as a means of cooperation than competition.

 References:

Inglehart R and Wyne EB, (2000) Modernisation, cultural change and the persistence of traditional values. American sociological review (65) 19-51. Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657288 

Vijavendra R and Walton M(2004) Culture and Public Action : Anthropological Critique of Development.Stanford University Press. South Asia.

GENDERED DEVEOPMENT

 GENDERED DEVELOPMENT: HOW GENDERED CAN IT BE?

From the presentation, development has had multiple definitions by different theorists as indicated. However it is also noted that development interpretations and definitions are multiple because development its self is not static. We can argue that the different definitions often came one after the other and after some time. From the different theorising of development, different approaches are put forward. In analysing the different stages of development, change of approach often came along with a different conceptualisation condemning the previous as having been inadequate, but are we there yet?. We also note that development does not only have varying conceptualisation, but that development is not universal and neither can there be same approaches for different countries.

 However although this may be valid, we need to see development from the lenses of those experiencing development. Although for instance development varies in definitions, the commonality is the wellbeing of people. But even then wellbeing may mean different things for different people around the world. Therefore what should be in the development basket also varies.

 However instead of concentrating on what should be in the well being basket, I will focus on “who” is included in the basket of wellbeing. It is what we refer to as gendered development. Who really determines who enjoys the benefit of the fruits of the development basket and in what proportions? is what I would like to discuss. The question however is that why the turn point in the 21^st century? Why gender equality now in development? As mentioned earlier development is evolutionary and everything that points to change for the better joins the basket. But the question is what if gendered development does not achieve the MDGs as set marks?

 The arguments for gendered development

 Gendered development is when a particular gender is seen as more appropriate than the other. In development, men’s experiences were so entrenched in development theory and practice that they were generalised as if they applied universally by allowing men to define the inclusion and exclusion of the feminine basing on the socially constructed norms. This exclusion denied women of their productivity and reduced them to domestication and invisibility (Lorrain, 2003). The effects were gender inequality. Women were treated as recipients of development rather than agents in the construction of development strategies. Most of the development projects were offered to men improving male opportunities and technology while reducing women access to both technology and employment. Women were primarily reflected in the process on sex specific or gender terms in the capacities as house-wives, mothers and reproducers of children. while the men entered the process as house hold heads and productive agents( Kabeer 1994) as a result, development became gendered because its mainstream targeted the male population.

 This trend is what states are trying to deconstruct by bringing women aboard in order to meet the MDGs. Am wondering if  this is not instrumentalisation of women as a means and not the end? Is gender equality a requirement for development of women as a gender or is it to meet the “ global targets”. Although development is for the wellbeing of all, it is not realistic and sustainable if the process is still gendered.  Previously, inequality was blamed on the social construction of masculinities and femininities which privileged one over the other in developmental productive sectors of life. If the problem was construction, then the answer should be deconstruction. But the issue is how willing are constructors ready to deconstruct their creation? It is absurd that although gender activities are battling to deconstruct the social constructs of inequality, the constructors have advanced o technology, biology, and scientific research to construct other advanced gendered development. How gendered then can development be? When men and women are developing at different rates in different fields? Whose standards are we supposed to use to measure development? How gendered was the participation, representation and what does this mean to gender equality?

References:

Beneria L (2003) Gender, development and globalisation economics as if all people mattered. London Rutledge.

Kabeer N (1994) Reversed realities : Gender Hierarchies in development thought. Verso, London

Loraine C, (2003) Encyclopaedia of feminist thoughts. Rutledge.

United Nations Millenium Declaration. NewYork, NY United Nations(2000) A/RES/55/2

Available at  http://www2.ohch.org/english/law/millenium.htm

ENVIROMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

 

 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

Environmental changes and climate in particular, is highly connected to the basic elements of life such as access to food, water, shelter, and clean air which in turn impacts on the health/wellbeing of the population. The more stable environment is, the high the possibilities of achieving MDGs while the more they are instable, the more it is likely to affect people especially in poorer countries with low coping capacities in exacerbating poverty, mortality due to malnutrition, hunger, diseases etc which also affect MDGs.

 To a large extent, public health depends on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure shelter, and good social conditions (WHO, 2007) which are also dependent on environmental sustainability (ecosystem services). While degradation of the environment affects weather conditions contributing to further serious effects on human health causing potential fatal illnesses associated with extreme heat or coldness like hypothermia, heat stress as well as increasing death rates.

 Environmental degradation is responsible for extreme weather conditions like floods, heavy rains, drought, hurricanes, all of which have a negative impact on public health of the affected populations. For instance in 1990s, an approximate number of about 600,000 death occurred as a result, with 95% of the victims were from poor countries (WHO,2007), in India in 1999, over 10-15 million people were affected by the floods in Orrissa so was Venezuela. As a result, populations are negatively affected socially, economically, physically as well as impacting on the fulfilment of MDGs.

Environmental sustainability is very essential to the achievement of all the millennium development goals(Melnick et al.2005a). It is a prerequisite and main factor of human health and wellbeing. Good environment is basic for achieving human wellbeing as well as increasing the freedom of choice and action to achieve basic material for a good life, health, good social relations and security.

 The environment comprises of a wide range of ecosystems from forests, grasslands, and agro-ecosystems as well as water systems with each providing a set of benefits that highly contribute to the wellbeing, human health as well as livelihoods ranging from provision of goods to more individual benefits (Melnick et al.2005b).

 In explaining the significance of sustainable environment in public health, I have used UNEP as an organisation to express its efforts in promoting sustainable environment and climate as an environmental factor while focusing more on Sub-Saharan Africa as a region that is most dependent on the natural environment for sustenance of almost all their livelihood. This shall be done by reviewing UNEP reports on environment, videos, press releases, and literature related to the environment degradation and sustainability. This literature shall be used to reflect on how environment can influence global public health in the short and long run.

 Problem  

Climate changes endanger health in many ways, for instance extreme weather, storms, floods, drought or extreme heat affect most of the fundamental determinants of health like air, water, food shelter, as well as increasing chances of diseases. Although these changes may appear natural, human activities have highly exacerbated  the degradation of the environment making some people more vulnerable to climatic changes especially in poorer countries. Climate is currently the overriding environmental crisis with economic, health and safety, food production security, as compared to any other environmental problem (UNEP,2007).

 The environment world wide is continuously being degraded at exceeding high rates ranging from pollution of air, water pollution, dumping of dangerous chemicals, deforestation especially in less developed countries as well as disappearance of forests is reported to range from 10 -15 million hectors per year. For example in Southern Asia, 75% of its original forests as well as 42% of its wildlife species by 2100 will be lost(Melnick et al. 2005)

 Environmental degradation breeds problems of drinking water sustainability or pollution, poverty, spread of diseases in case of contamination of water and land, affects health and wellbeing especially of the women and children, affects local and global climate in ways that affect the public health and wellbeing of the entire population.

 It has contributed to the current emergence and increased dispersal of zoonotic diseases as well as serving as a vector borne diseases. These zoonic diseases are on the increase currently accounting for 75%of the emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, Lyme disease, Ebola, Nipah viruses etc which are very harmful to public health and more are expected as the environment continues to be degraded.

 The current global warming is a result of environmental degradation that has furthered the rises in insect-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and filariasis in many parts of the world(Melnick et al.2005).

Unfortunately, there is little accountability, monitoring, investment, political will in ensuring environmental sustainability. There is lack of sufficient investment in environmental management, poor integration into policies, inadequate political will and support, difficulty in international and regional cooperation and partnerships, market influence, limited public awareness.

The role of UNEP in ameliorating environmental changes:

UNEP is an international UN organisation established in 1972 by the General Assembly with the main objective of providing leadership and encouraging partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life with out compromising the future generation.

 It does so by promoting international cooperation, providing general policy guidance and coordination of programmes, review the periodic reports on the implementation of environmental programmes, reviewing the world environmental situation and environmental problems of wide significance receive appropriate consideration by governments, promote the contribution of the relevant international scientific and other professional communities to acquire, assess and exchange knowledge , information, formulation and implementation of environmental programs, to continuously review the impact of national and international environmental policies  and measures on developed countries , as well as costs in the implementation

 It is the biggest international organisation that advocates for, educate, and or facilitate, promote natural sustainability of the environment and works with many other international organisations national governments, NGOs, business, media, and civil society to improve our environment and make it more sustainable.

Among many environmental factors, climatic change has been a priority area for UNEP. it is one of most pressing global issue causing heavy rainfalls, heavy floods, prolonged draught and many other ecosystem changes which have directly or indirectly affected public health and general wellbeing of the population in the affected areas in terms of spreading disease like diarrhoea, water born diseases during floods, homelessness, poverty as a result of destructive heavy rains or causing food shortages. This is because most poor countries don’t have the capacity to develop and adopt measures in order to cope with the climatic change.

 UNEP therefore supports developing countries to adopt strategies focusing on the building of sustainable ecosystem and economies that are most vulnerable to climate change. Most less developed or poor countries especially in Sub-Saharan African depend highly on the services of ecosystem and on the natural resources for their whole livelihoods as a source of clean air and water, fertile soils, renewable energy and biodiversity to meet their needs.

 Unfortunately, the environment is rapidly declining  due to the activities of both the rich and poor countries leading to green house gas emissions, driving climatic changes, which are currently threatening human health and ecosystem functioning and biodiversity.

 UNEP has implemented small scale rainfall harvest projects changing the way rainfall is perceived in Africa by working with various countries, governments and local communities suffering from water shortages, like Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali etc to improve their wellbeing. It has done so by extending rain water harvest projects for ecosystem sustenance and improvement in Kenya kajiado, while in Mali; UNEP has been able to implement a project of rehabilitation of lake Faguibine to provide sufficient water and ecosystem.

 In Liberia the 13year civil war that ended in 2003 humanitarian catastrophe had destroyed the water plant supply of drinking water to over 600,000 people in Monrovia leading to spread of water borne diseases and deaths resulting from the destroyed ecosystem by the war. However, in 2005, UNEP developed a long term and sustainable water management policy to guarantee a good quality and sufficient supply of drinking water. UNEP managed to ensure environmental rehabilitation for instance in Liberia in the development and implementation of its water policy through facilitating training workshops for country.

 Why sustainable environment is important to public health

Environment is life sustaining for people and other living things through provision of goods and services which contribute to meeting the basic human needs, health and development as well as quality of life.

 Environmental sustainability becomes important in fighting poverty which has ravaged African countries contributing to poor public health of the people. Most people depend directly on the ecosystem services like agriculture, drinking water, fishing, gathering for a livelihood. Any changes in the climate affects their rate and quality of  production and scarcity of most basics thereby affecting the wellbeing of the majority who can not cope like children, pregnant women/mothers and general health of the population.

 In Africa for instance, the populations are at a higher risk of floods, fires, earth quakes, and lava flows, drought, which increase poverty, thereby exacerbating health problems, as well as hunger, vulnerability and insecurity due to low coping capacity.

 In essence, environmental changes  reduces the living standards  and the ability of the poor to grow out of poverty due to the associated constraints of increased malnutrition among the children, poor housing facilities in case of floods, reduced coping capacities, vulnerability to disease and sicknesses hence creating a vicious circle of chronic  poverty and poor health.

 Poverty does not only affect individuals but also reduce general economic growth of the country and straining of public health services and expenditure like treatment of water born diseases, malnutrition in children,  and access to health services and proper sanitation. Without external aid, most populations in these areas can not fulfil the MDGs.

Economically, Environmental sustainability is very essential for the economy. Although the economy is a pressure on the environment, it is also a victim of environmental change in the sense that over exploitation of resources for economic growth has an effect on the environmental change which in turn has a negative impact on the economic performance directly or indirectly in form of floods, drought, earth quakes, storms, fires, on the infrastructure and property and the people. As a result, it creates economic dependence on other countries/aid for survival.

 In essence, environmental changes affect the economic productivity which has an impact on the wellbeing in terms of costs, expenditures on infrastructure, repairing, resettling, and increase vulnerability of the populations to poorer life standards which also affect their health, access to basic services, seeking aid, scarcity of certain services and goods thereby affecting the livelihood of the people.

Economic insecurity may lead to reduced productivity and production, reduced incomes, reduced purchasing power, increased demand for subsidies, increased indebtedness, need for aid and assistance, hunger as well as health problems due to scarcity.

 It is also very important because most parts in Africa are directly dependent on natural resources of the physical environment; they become more vulnerable to environmental changes and with low coping capacities although all people in the world are vulnerable to changes. For example the 1999 disasters that occurred  in United States , India and Bangladesh, there were 14 times reported deaths in India than US, and 34 times higher death in Bangladesh than in US(WHO, 2007).

Lessons:

From the earlier studies, we note that realisation of environmental sustainability and other MDGs depend highly on the global cooperation/partnerships as well as local communities and governments. Never the less, it has been clear that MDGs can not be achieved in isolation.

 Weather changes cause more deaths and injuries especially for more vulnerable people among others like children and pregnant women as high risk bearers in times of floods, storms, and drought. Floods are often followed by outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, when sanitation services are destroyed. Although disaster may not be selective, men, women and children are affected differently. In essence, because children and women are more vulnerable, it could exacerbate the maternal and infant mortality resulting from diarrhoeal which is currently the 2^nd leading infectious cause of childhood mortality claiming 1.8 million deaths each year (WHO, 2007)

 Health as earlier mentioned is dependent on safe drinking water, sufficient food, good shelter etc. however in poor countries, all these determinant are naturally provided such that change of the climate affects food production, loss of income due to poor productivity causing poverty just as much as insufficient food cause malnutrition especially of the children and pregnant women which also leads to further maternal and infant mortality in poor countries.

 Unhealthy environment affects productivity, leaves population vulnerable to diseases, poverty, malnutrition, and viciously poor. To break this poverty circle requires global intervention of richer countries to provide the basics in emergencies, planning for sustainable environment, financing and implementation of the MDGs since most poor countries do not have the capacity to do so.

References:

World Health Organisation. World Health Report (2007) ISBN 9789241563444.

 Melnick D, Yolanda KN, Mcneel J, Schmidt G, Taob R. The millennium project : the positive health implications of improved environmental sustainability (2005) 365: 723 – 25. Also available at www.thelancent.com. Last visited 5/12/09.

 Melnick D, Yolanda KN, Mcneel J, Schmidt G, Taob R, and Sears RR. UNDP Environment and Human wellbeing: A practical Strategy (2005) ISBN: 184407-228-2

 UNEP, Africa Environment Outlook: Past present and the future prospect ivies. Available at: http://hqweb.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/aeo-1/index.htm

 UNEP, Ecosystem management. Available   http://www.unep.org/ecosystemmanagement

 WHO, media centre : climate and health (2007) Available at

http://www.whoint/mediacentre/factsheets/fs266en/index.html

 Garside P, (2006) Gender Plan of Action.UNEP